1 题型描述

list of headings的题目通常出现在文章的前面，通常是一个方框里罗列出一系列的小标题，方框下面给出考生需要为其选择标题的段落号。方框中的标题数目往往要多于指定的 段落数目，也就是说有的段落可能有好几个标题，但考生需要为每个指定段落选择最合适的标题。

题目中所给的小标题实际上都是对段落大意中的总结和概括，通常的形式是以主题词为 中心的名词短语，因而这类题目实际上是考査考生找段落大意的能力。我们在第一周已经讲 过如何寻找主题、大意和细节的技巧，这类题目就需要充分运用这种技巧。

2 解题步骤

• Step 1:划去已选标题，开始阅读文章中与题目相照应的第一个段落或部分，阅读时跳 过已选题目的段落。
• Step 2:找出第一个段落的主题句（比较概括性的句子），跳读文中的例子、数据等一些 具体细节。注意转折词后的句子，注意阅读文章中的首、尾句。
• Step 3:提炼主题句的主题词，并想一下主题词的其他同义表达，然后回到题目中寻找 出现主题词或主题词的近义表达的标题。
• Step 4:对于确定的段落标题，选定并在标题框将其划去，以便不断缩小题目选择范围； 对于难以确定题目的段落，可以留到最后再做，注意排除题目中没有出现相关信息的标题和 包含段落中细节内容的标题。

1. 划去已选标题；
2. 直接看文章，寻找每个段落的主题句或主题词，并作下记号；
3. 对于十分确定的段落标题，划去以便缩小选择范围，降低难度;
4. 对于不太确定或比较相近的标题，先画虚线，留到最后再做。

3 题型示例

The following passage has six sections A- F.

Choose the correct heading for sections A-D and F from the list of headings below. Write the correct number i-ix in boxes 1 ~5 on your answer sheet.

1. The probable effects of the new international trade agreement
2. The environmental impact of modem farming
3. Fanning and soil erosion
4. The effects of government policy in rich countries
5. Governments and management of the environment
6. The effects of government policy in poor countries
7. Farming and food output
8. The effects of government policy on food output
9. The new prospects for world trade

1. Section A
2. Section B
3. Section C
4. Section D
5. Section E
   

   Section E    Answer vi

6. Section F

Section A

The role of governments in environmental management is difficult but inescapable. Sometimes, the state tries to manage the resources it owns, and does so badly. Often, however, governments act in an even more harmful way. They actually subsidise the exploitation and consumption of natural resources. A whole range of policies, from farm-price support to protection for coalmining, do environmental damage and (often) make no economic sense. Scrapping them offers a twofold bonus: a cleaner environment and a more efficient economy. Growth and environmentalism can actually go hand in hand, if politicians have the courage to confront the vested interest that subsidies create.

Section A分析：主题句一般是包含概括性字眼的文字，而且往往是位于段首。细节 一般是支撑主题句的例子、事实、数据等，也就是说明who，where，when，how，why 的。读完第一句 The role of governments in environmental management is difficult but inescapable,我们可以提出这样几个问题：What is the role of governments? How do they manage environment? Why is their role difficult and inescapable?这说明这句话比较概括，但是否就是本段的中心句呢？我们再接着往下看。后面四个句子中的sometimes，often, actually和压range of policy都是在说政府在environmental management方面实际上是如何 做的，也就是对第一句中提到的government在environmental management方面的具体表现， 因而是细节。本段的最后两句是作者为政府在提供环境管理方面的解决思路。看完整段， 我们可以发现主题就是第一句，这句话的主语是the role of governments in environmental management,而且反复出现的字眼是government和environmental management，因此我们 回到标题框中去找出现这两个主题词的标题。很快可以发现选项v (Governments and management of the environment)正好包含了全部关键字眼，因此可以判断此项正是section A的标题。

Section B

No activity affects more of the earth’s surface than farming. It shapes a third of the planef’s land area, not counting Antarctica, and the proportion is rising. World food output per head has risen by 4 per cent between the 1970s and 1980s mainly as a result of increases in yields from land already in cultivation, but also because more land has been brought under the plough. Higher yields have been achieved by increased irrigation, better crop breeding, and a doubling in the use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers in the 1970s and 1980s.

Section B 分析：第一句可以概括为 the effect of farming on earth’s surface,第二句是对第 一句的举例说明。第三句说世界粮食产量（world food output)增长及其原因，第四句仍然是 在说粮食增长的原因。因此这一段有两个大意，一个是农业对地球表面的影响，一个是粮食 增长的原因。两者的主语分别是农业和粮食增长。带着这两个主题词再回到题目中，看一下 是否有包含这两个词组或近义词组的标题。很快我们就可以发现标题vii (Farming and food output)正好包含了本段的两个主题词，因此section B选vii。

Section C

All these activities may have damaging environmental impacts. For example, land clearing for agriculture is the largest single cause of deforestation. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides may contaminate water supplies, more intensive farming and the abandonment of fallow periods tend to exacerbate soil erosion; and the spread of monoculture and use of high-yielding varieties of crops have been accompanied by the disappearance of old varieties of food plants which might have provided some insurance against pests or diseases in future. Soil erosion threatens the productivity of land in both rich and poor countries. The United States, where the most careful measurements have been done, discovered in 1982 that about one-fifth of its farmland was losing topsoil at a rate likely to diminish the soil’s productivity. The country subsequently embarked upon a program to convert 11 percent of its cropped land to meadow or forest. Topsoil in India and China is vanishing much faster than in America.

Section C分析：本段的首句是一个大意句（main idea)，原因是damaging environmental impacts非常概括。For example是支撑大意的细节，类型是举例，第三句、第四句全都是在举例说明什么样的activities导致了什么样的environmental impacts。这些activities分别有land clearing, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, more intensive fanning and the abandonment of fallow periods, the spread of monoculture and use of high-yielding varieties of crops。damaging environmental impacts 分别有 deforestation，contaminate, soil erosion, disappearance of old varieties of food plants。接着第五句 Soil erosion threatens the productivity of land in both rich and poor countries.又是一个比较概括的句子，后面的句子举例说明穷国和富国土壤流失的具体 情况，因而是支撑第五句的细节。本段的大意句有两个：第一句和第五句，它们的主题分别 是 damaging environmental impacts of these activities 矛口 soil erosion,其中 activities J旨的是各种农业活动。回到标题列中，可以发现标题ii (The environmental impact of modem farming)和 标题iii (Farming and soil erosion)似乎都可以，但仔细分析可以看出第三个标题没有把本段最重要的主题词environmental impacts包括进去，而soil erosion实际上属于the environmental impact of modem farming 的一种，因此应该选择 ii。

Section D

Government policies have frequently compounded the environmental damage that farming can cause. In the rich countries, subsidies for growing crops and price supports for farm output drive up the price of land. The annual value of these subsidies is immense: about $250 billion,

or more than all World Bank lending in the 1980s. To increase the output of crops per acre, a farmer’s easiest option is to use more of the most readily- available inputs: fertilisers and pesticides. Fertiliser use doubled in Denmark in the period 1960-1985 and increased in The Netherlands by 150 percent The quantity of pesticides applied has risen too: by 69 percent in 1975-1984 in Denmark, for example, with a rise of 115 per cent in the frequency of application in the three years from 1981.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s some efforts were made to reduce farm subsidies. The most dramatic example was that of New Zealand, which scrapped most farm support in 1984. A study of the environmental effects, conducted in 1993, found that the end of fertiliser subsidies had been followed by a fall in fertiliser use (a fall compounded by the decline in world commodity prices, which cut farm incomes). The removal of subsidies also stopped land-clearing and overstocking, which in the past had been the principal causes of erosion.

Farms began to diversify. The one kind of subsidy whose removal appeared to have been bad for the environment was the subsidy to manage soil erosion. In less enlightened countries, and in the European Union, the trend has been to reduce rather than eliminate subsidies, and to introduce new payments to encourage farmers to treat their land in environmentally friendlier ways, or to leave it fallow. It may sound strange but such payments need to be higher than the existing incentives for farmers to grow food crops. Farmers, however, dislike being paid to do nothing. In several countries they have become interested in the possibility of using fuel produced from crop residues either as a replacement for petrol (as ethanol) or as fuel for power stations (as biomass). Such fuels produce far less carbon dioxide than coal or oil, and absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. They are therefore less likely to contribute to the greenhouse effect. But they are rarely competitive with fossil fuels unless subsidised and growing them does no less environmental harm than other crops.

Section D 分析：这部分比较长，包含3个自然段。在时间比较有限的情况下，我们可以 灵活运用速读和跳读策略迅速定位主题句。第一个段落的第一句话的意思是：政府政策常常 加剧了农业对环境造成的破坏，概括起来就是政府政策对环境的影响。第二句紧接着具体阐 明富国采取的哪些政策对环境造成了哪些影响，接下来的一些数字和年代表明作者在提供一 些事实和数据来举例说明。第二段举例说明上个世纪80年代到90年代政策上的一些变化， 第三段重点说明这些政策对农民的农业活动带来的变化及对环境的间接影响。现在看来这三 段都是围绕政府政策对环境的影响而展开的。标题列包含政府政策的小标题有iv (The effects of government policy in rich countries ), vi ( The effects of government policy in poor countries ) 萍口 viii (The effects of government policy on food output)。但 vi 是 section E 的标题，同时 viii 的标题范围过窄，因而只有标题W最符合，因为这部分举的例子全都是发达国家的政府政策 对环境的影响。

Section E

In poor countries, governments aggravate other sorts of damage. Subsidies for pesticides and artificial fertilisers encourage farmers to use greater quantities than are needed to get the highest economic crop yield. A study by the International Rice Research Institute of pesticide use by farmers in South East Asia found that, with pest-resistant varieties of rice, even moderate applications of pesticide frequently cost farmers more than they saved. Such waste puts farmers on a chemical treadmill: bugs and weeds become resistant to poisons, so next year’s poisons must be more lethal. One cost is to human health. Every year some 10,000 people die from pesticide poisoning, almost all of them in the developing countries, and another 400,000 become seriously ill. As for artificial fertilisers, their use worldwide increased by 40 percent per unit of farmed land between the mid 1970s and late 1980s, mostly in the developing countries. Overuse of fertilisers may cause farmers to stop rotating crops or leaving their land fallow. That, in turn, may make soil erosion worse.

Section F

A result of the Uruguay Round of world trade negotiations is likely to be a reduction of 36 percent in the average levels of farm subsidies paid by the rich countries in 1986-1990. Some of the world’s food production will move from Western Europe to regions where subsidies are lower or nonexistent, such as the former communist countries and parts of the developing world. Some environmentalists worry about this outcome. It will undoubtedly mean more pressure to convert natural habitat into farmland. But it will also have many desirable environmental effects. The intensity of farming in the rich world should decline, and the use of chemical inputs will diminish. Crops are more likely to be grown in the environments to which they are naturally suited. And more farmers in poor countries will have the money and the incentive to manage their land in ways that are sustainable in the long run. That is important. To feed an increasingly hungry world, farmers need every incentive to use their soil and water effectively and efficiently.

Section F 分析：本段的第一句说 the Uruguay Round of world trade negotiations 可能导致杀虫剂的使用水平下降，第二句又说对世界粮食生产的影响。后面的部分都是在讨论the Uruguay Round可能带来的environmental effects，因此我们可以判断本段的大主题是 the possible effects of a result of the Uruguay Round of world trade negotiations。小标题中的 i (The probable effects of the new international trade agreement)正好吻合了本部分的主题，其中 the new international trade agreement 指的正是 the Uruguay Round of world trade negotiations。